Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for acute respiratory distress syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a major cause of mortality and morbidity in intensive care unit (ICU). The incidence of ARDS is reported to be ranged between 4 to 20 cases/100,000 population/year according to differences in the methodology used to define ARDS or ALI (1-3). In a large cohort study involving 78 European ICUs, Brun-Buisson C and coworkers reported that acute lung injury (ALI) occurred in 7.1% of ICU admissions and in 16.1% of mechanically ventilated patients (4). ALI/ARDS is associated with a mortality rate ranging from 30% to 75%, depending on different patient mix. Although some report showed a declining mortality of ARDS, most cohort studies reported similar mortality rate to that of previous decades (5). Management of ALI/ARDS is multidisciplinary and requires combined interventions that includes but not limited to optimization of volume status, protective ventilation strategy and treatment of underlying diseases (6,7). However, some interventions appear to be beneficial only in severe form of ARDS, those include extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) and prone position ventilation (8). This raises the importance of risk stratification of ALI/ARDS. Although the commonly used method nowadays in risk stratification is based on oxygenation index, it is limited in timeliness that at the time of occurrence of severe hypoxia patients may immediately die.

Therefore, it could be clinically helpful to identify patients with risk of ALI/ARDS as early as possible and this motivates investigators to look for risk factors of ALI/ARDS. Cigarette smoking has long been established to be an important risk factor for varieties of lung diseases including lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (9). However, it is still unknown whether cigarette smoking increases risk of ALI/ARDS in acute setting. Although several studies have reported an association between smoking and ALI/ARDS, this cannot be replicated in other studies (10-13). Therefore, a systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to explore whether smoking was a true risk factor for ALI/ARDS.

Methods

Searching strategy and study selection

Electronic databases including PubMed, Google scholar, Embase and Scopus were searched from inception to April 2014. The core search terms consisted of cigarette smoking and ALI/ARDS. Detailed searching strategy and results performed in PubMed were shown in Appendix file. The searching strategy was adapted to other databases and results were not shown here.

Studies were included if they investigated the association of cigarette smoking and ALI/ARDS. Both cohort and case-control studies were included irrespective of they were retrospective or prospective in design. Methodology used to investigate the association between smoking and ALI/ARDS included multivariable analysis and matching technique. Exclusion criteria were (I) non-human experimental studies; (II) studies investigate the prognostic value of cigarette smoking in ARDS patients (patients were already confirmed to have ARDS at enrollment); and (III) studies used duplicated cohort with other studies.

Data on following aspects were extracted from included studies: first author’s name, year of publication, study population and settings, study design (prospective vs. retrospective), sample size, incidence of ALI/ARDS, definitions of cigarette smoking, the number of covariates used for risk adjustment, and outcome of interest (ARDS or ALI or both), odds ratio (OR) or risk ratio (RR) of smoking for ALI/ARDS development. For studies reported OR or RR for more than one multivariable model, the one adjusted by the largest number of covariates was extracted.

Quality assessment with Newcastle-Ottawa scale

Non-randomized studies were assessment for their methodological quality by using Newcastle-Ottawa scale (14). The scale comprised three major parts: selection, comparability and outcome. Selection was assessed from four aspects including representativeness of exposed cohort, selection of non-exposed cohort, ascertainment of exposure and demonstration that outcome of interest was not present at start of study. One star can be assigned to each item if the condition was satisfied. Comparability was assessed on the basis of the design or analysis. A maximum of two stars can be allotted in this category. Outcome comprised three components: assessment of outcome was follow-up long enough for outcomes to occur and adequacy of follow up cohort. One star can be assigned to each item if the condition is considered to be adequate.

Statistical analysis

Due to expected heterogeneity in study population, random effects model was employed for analysis. The parameter τ² (tau-squared) is the between study variance and can be estimated by using DerSimonian and Laird method:

Where

where k is the number of included studies, and

Then, the total variance was composed of the between-study variance and within study variance, and the mean OR was estimated by using inverse-variance method (15). Heterogeneity was quantified as the proportion of between-study variance in the total variance, and can be written as

Values on the order of 25%, 50% and 75% can be considered as low, moderate and high heterogeneity.

When studies reported RR to estimate relative risk of smoking on ALI/ARDS development, RR was transformed to OR by the equation:

Where RR is relative risk, OR id OR and P0 indicates absolute risk in the non-smoker group, given as a fraction (e.g., fill in 10% risk as 0.1) (16). When P0<0.1, OR was approximated with RR: ORth .

Publication bias was assessed by using Egger’s test. Standard normal deviate (SND), defined as the OR divided by its standard error, was regressed against the precision of OR. Precision of OR was defined as the inverse of the standard error.

Where a is the intercept and b is the slope indicating the size and direction of the effect. Intercept a provides a measure of asymmetry: the larger its deviation from zero the more pronounced the asymmetry (17).

All statistical analysis was performed by using Stata 13.1 (StataCorp, College Station, Texas 77845, USA). Two-tailed P<0.05 was considered to be statistically significant.

Results

The initial search identified 314 citations and 153 of them were excluded by inspection of the title and abstract (Figure 1). The remaining 161 citations were retrieved for further review and 144 were excluded because they were irrelevant studies (n=72), review articles (n=30), experimental studies (n=16), studies on smoking inhalation injury (n=12), case reports (n=8), prognosis of ARDS (n=4; patients with ARDS on enrollment), and letters (n=2). As a result, a total of 17 studies were included in the present analysis (10-13,18-30).

Figure 1 Flow chart of study selection.

Characteristics of included studies are shown in Table 1. Six studies (10,12,18,20,25) involved patients underwent major surgery; three studies(11,13,26) were population based studies; and others involved patients with other risks of ALI/ARDS such as septic shock (19), influenza A infection (22-24), trauma (23,27), transfusion (30). Five studies were prospective in design and 11 were retrospective. The sample sizes varied substantially across studies ranging from 16 to 121,012. Population-based studies had much larger sample size than others and the incidence of ALI/ARDS was expectedly much lower. In general population, the incidence of ARDS was 0.046% (11), whereas the incidence of ARDS can be as high as 40% in patients with septic shock (19) or severe blunt trauma (27). Smoking can be classified into current, former, and never. However, the definitions of cigarette smoking varied substantially across studies. Some studies defined in both the number of cigarette (pack-years) and the time (the last time of smoking), while others defined in terms of the number of cigarette. The number of covariates ranged from 4 to 26. Three studies reported unadjusted OR (23,29,30), and one study used matching technique (26). Most studies used ARDS as the outcome of interest. Three studies (27,28,30) used ALI as the outcome of interest and one (26) used recurrent ALI as the outcome.

Table 1 Characteristics of included studies
Full table

The quality of component studies was assessed by using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale (Figure 2). Because ALI/ARDS is an acute process, follow up of cohorts were deemed adequate for all studies. Ascertainment of smoking history was adequate in 12 studies (52.9%). Comparability of cohorts was not adequate in 8 studies (47.1%, no star), one star was assigned in 3 studies (17.6%), and two stars were assigned for 6 studies (35.3%). Outcome of interest was not present in all cohorts. Representativeness of the exposed and control cohort was not adequate in 5 studies (29.4%).

Figure 2 Quality assessment of non-randomized studies using Newcastle-Ottawa scale. The abscissa axis shows the proportion of studies which were assigned with one, two or zero star; and the vertical axis displays the scaling items.

Five studies did not report effect size (OR or RR) of cigarette smoking for ALI/ARDS development. Two studies (10,18) stated cigarette smoking is an independent risk factor for ARDS, but the effect size was not reported. One study (19) employed smoking as a covariate to adjust for other variable of interest. One study (20) reported that all patients in the cohort had history of smoking. The last study (24) did not linked smoking with respiratory failure quantitatively. Four studies demonstrated cigarette smoking as a risk factor for the development of ALI/ARDS (11,12,22,27), whereas the remaining studies did not show any increased risk of ALI/ARDS in patients with history of smoking (Figure 3). Although there was no statistical heterogeneity (I-squared =0%), results were still combined with random-effects model because of the heterogeneous study populations. The combined results showed that cigarette smoking was not a risk factor for the development of ALI/ARDS [OR: 1.00, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.99–1.01]. In subgroup analysis, the same result was obtained in general population (OR: 2.03, 95% CI: 0.06–4.01), patients with major surgery or trauma (OR: 1.20, 95% CI: 0.48–1.93) and patients with other risks of ALI/ARDS (OR: 1.00, 95% CI: 0.99–1.01). Publication bias was present with Egger’s test (Figure 4). The result showed that small studies reported larger OR (smoking as a risk factor for ALI/ARDS) were more likely to be published (95% CI did not include the reference line).

Figure 3 Forest plot showing OR and relevant 95% CI for each study and for pooled results for group and subgroups. The combined results showed that cigarette smoking was not a risk factor for the development of ALI/ARDS (OR: 1.00, 95% CI: 0.99–1.01). In subgroup analysis, the same result was obtained in general population (OR: 2.03, 95% CI: 0.06–4.01), patients with major surgery or trauma (OR: 1.20, 95% CI: 0.48–1.93) and patients with other risks of ALI/ARDS (OR: 1.00, 95% CI: 0.99–1.01). ALI, acute lung injury; ARDS, acute respiratory distress syndrome.

Figure 4 Publication bias assessed using Egger’s test. SND was regressed against the precision of log (OR). Note the significant deviation of the intercept from zero (95% CI did not include zero), which is the sign of publication bias. SND, standard normal deviate; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.

Discussion

The study demonstrates that cigarette smoking is not significantly associated with ALI/ARDS. However, only one study (11) investigated the association of cigarette smoking and ARDS in general population and found that smoking was associated with significantly increased risk of ARDS (OR: 4.59, 95% CI: 2.13–9.88). The other population-based study (26) used recurrent ALI as the outcome of interest and showed no significant association between smoking and recurrent ALI. Because the event rate in population-based study was very low, the positive finding can happen by chance and require further confirmation. In the author’s view, placing ALI/ARDS in general population is of limited interest to clinicians because of extremely low incidence in general healthy population. In contrast, investigating ALI/ARDS in high-risk patients is more relevant, that is, it is more interesting to target patients who are at risk of ALI/ARDS and for whom particular interventions can be initiated to prevent or postpone its occurrence.

The study refutes previous findings that cigarette smoking can be an underlying cause of ALI/ARDS. In experimental studies, active smoking is associated with morphological alterations in lung epithelium and endothelium similar to that seen in ARDS (31-33). Furthermore, studies involving human subjects have shown that smokers (as compared with non-smokers) have greater pulmonary epithelial permeability which is considered to be a hallmark of ARDS. Active smoking also reduces the expression of ion channels that are responsible for resolving pulmonary edema (34-36). However, these experimental studies were conducted in strictly controlled experimental conditions that may not be replicable in real world setting. There are numerous confounding factors in the real world that may act to mask the biological effect of cigarette smoking. Alternatively, the effect of cigarette smoking may be too small as compared to other precipitating factors to be detected in studies with limited sample size.

However, the study failed to show significant association of cigarette smoking and ALI/ARDS in varieties of conditions such as major surgery, severe trauma, transfusion, septic shock and influenza A infection. The incidence of ALI/ARDS in these conditions was much higher than that in general population. The difference between general population and these medical conditions lies in the fact that patients are more critically ill and requires ICU admission. Such severe conditions may obliterate the impact of cigarette smoking because this impact is so small that it is negligible as compared with other precipitating factors. A small effect size is subject to false negative findings if statistical power is compromised by limited sample size. As a matter of fact, the sample sizes in studies involving critically ill patients were relatively small, which may partly explain the negative findings in these sub-populations. Furthermore, the publication bias was identified by using Egger’s test, that is, studies with negative findings in terms of the association of cigarette smoking and ALI/ARDS were less likely to report the effect size (OR or RR). For instance, the study by Moss M and coworkers used cigarette smoking as a covariate to adjust for other variables of interest but finally did not reported the coefficient for cigarette smoking (19). The publication bias further support the finding that cigarette smoking is less likely to increase the risk of ALI/ARDS in critically ill patients. Small study effect is a phenomenon in meta-epidemiological field that meta-analyses including small study are more likely to report larger effect size (37). Such effect may also take place in the current meta-analysis in which component studies involving critically ill patients were generally small. However, due to the neutral finding in the study, the small study effects act as a confirmation on the neutral effect of cigarette smoking.

Conclusions

In aggregate, the study demonstrates that cigarette smoking is not associated with increased risk of ALI/ARDS in critically ill patients. However, the relationship in general population is still controversial and requires further confirmation.

Appendix

(((((acute respiratory distress syndrome[Title/Abstract]) OR acute lung injury[Title/Abstract]) OR ARDS[Title/Abstract]) OR ALI[Title/Abstract])) AND (((cigarette[Title/Abstract]) OR smoking[Title/Abstract]) OR smoke[Title/Abstract]) Filters: Humans 162

This message contains search results from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). Do not reply directly to this message.

Sent on: Tue May 27 01:08:44 2014

Search: (((((acute respiratory distress syndrome[Title/Abstract]) OR acute lung injury[Title/Abstract]) OR ARDS[Title/Abstract]) OR ALI[Title/Abstract])) AND (((cigarette[Title/Abstract]) OR smoking[Title/Abstract]) OR smoke[Title/Abstract]) Filters: Humans

PubMed Results

Items 1-162 of 162 (Display the 162 citations in PubMed)

1. Postoperative acute respiratory distress syndrome in patients with previous exposure to bleomycin.
Aakre BM, Efem RI, Wilson GA, Kor DJ, Eisenach JH.
Mayo Clin Proc. 2014 Feb;89(2):181-9. doi: 10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.11.007.
PMID: 24485131 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

2. [Complicated form of A/HINI (2009) influenza in pregnant women].
Belokrinitskaia TE, Shapovalov KG, Trubitsina AIu, Romanova EN, Tarbaeva DA.
Klin Med (Mosk). 2013;91(7):48-52. Russian.
PMID: 24437170 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

3. Use of inhaled anticoagulants for treatment of smoke inhalation-associated acute lung injury-playing the waiting game.
Freeman BD.
Crit Care Med. 2014 Feb;42(2):474-5. doi: 10.1097/01.ccm.0000435691.31210.0d. No abstract available.
PMID: 24434458 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

4. Inhaled anticoagulation regimens for the treatment of smoke inhalation-associated acute lung injury: a systematic review.
Miller AC, Elamin EM, Suffredini AF.
Crit Care Med. 2014 Feb;42(2):413-9. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182a645e5. Review.
PMID: 24158173 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

5. The role of soluble guanylyl cyclase in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Glynos C, Dupont LL, Vassilakopoulos T, Papapetropoulos A, Brouckaert P, Giannis A, Joos GF, Bracke KR, Brusselle GG.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013 Oct 1;188(7):789-99. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201210-1884OC.
PMID: 23841447 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

6. Carbon monoxide in exhaled breath testing and therapeutics.
Ryter SW, Choi AM.
J Breath Res. 2013 Mar;7(1):017111. doi: 10.1088/1752-7155/7/1/017111. Epub 2013 Feb 27. Review.
PMID: 23446063 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

7. Impact of interstitial lung disease on short-term and long-term survival of patients undergoing surgery for non-small-cell lung cancer: analysis of risk factors.
Voltolini L, Bongiolatti S, Luzzi L, Bargagli E, Fossi A, Ghiribelli C, Rottoli P, Gotti G.
Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2013 Jan;43(1):e17-23. doi: 10.1093/ejcts/ezs560. Epub 2012 Nov 4.
PMID: 23129356 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

8. A predictive equation to adjust for clinical variables in soluble mesothelin-related protein (SMRP) levels.
Park EK, Wilson D, Yates DH.
Clin Chem Lab Med. 2012 Dec;50(12):2199-204.
PMID: 23093275 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

9. Apple polyphenol protects against cigarette smoke-induced acute lung injury.
Bao MJ, Shen J, Jia YL, Li FF, Ma WJ, Shen HJ, Shen LL, Lin XX, Zhang LH, Dong XW, Xie YC, Zhao YQ, Xie QM.
Nutrition. 2013 Jan;29(1):235-43. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2012.04.008. Epub 2012 Sep 8.
PMID: 22964088 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

10. Mesenchymal stem cells protect cigarette smoke-damaged lung and pulmonary function partly via VEGF-VEGF receptors.
Guan XJ, Song L, Han FF, Cui ZL, Chen X, Guo XJ, Xu WG.
J Cell Biochem. 2013 Feb;114(2):323-35. doi: 10.1002/jcb.24377.
PMID: 22949406 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

11. The effect of comorbidity on the prognosis of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome.
Ando K, Doi T, Moody SY, Ohkuni Y, Sato S, Kaneko N.
Intern Med. 2012;51(14):1835-40. Epub 2012 Jul 15.
PMID: 22821096 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free Article
Related citations

12. Comparison of the short-term outcomes of surgical treatment for non-small cell lung cancer via video assisted thoracoscopic surgery and open thoracotomy].
Mu JW, Zhang BH, Li N, Lü F, Mao YS, Xue Q, Gao SG, Zhao J, Wang DL, Li ZS, Gao YS, Zhang LZ, Huang JF, Shao K, Feng FY, Zhao L, Li J, Cheng GY, Sun KL, He J.
Zhonghua Zhong Liu Za Zhi. 2012 Apr;34(4):301-5. doi: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.0253-3766.2012.04.014. Chinese.
PMID: 22781045 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE
Related citations

13. Introducing mental health and substance use screening into a community-based health service in Australia: usefulness and implications for service change.
Thomas AC, Staiger PK.
Health Soc Care Community. 2012 Nov;20(6):635-44. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2524.2012.01079.x. Epub 2012 Jul 3.
PMID: 22747792 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

14. Naringin attenuates enhanced cough, airway hyperresponsiveness and airway inflammation in a guinea pig model of chronic bronchitis induced by cigarette smoke.
Luo YL, Zhang CC, Li PB, Nie YC, Wu H, Shen JG, Su WW.
Int Immunopharmacol. 2012 Jul;13(3):301-7. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2012.04.019. Epub 2012 May 7.
PMID: 22575871 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

15. Pulmonary function, respiratory symptoms, and dust exposures among workers engaged in early manufacturing processes of tea: a cohort study.
Shieh TS, Chung JJ, Wang CJ, Tsai PJ, Kuo YC, Guo HR.
BMC Public Health. 2012 Feb 13;12:121. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-121.
PMID: 22325044 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

16. Perioperative risk analysis for acute respiratory distress syndrome after elective oesophagectomy.
Paul DJ, Jamieson GG, Watson DI, Devitt PG, Game PA.
ANZ J Surg. 2011 Oct;81(10):700-6.
PMID: 22295310 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

17. Large-animal models of acute respiratory distress syndrome.
Ballard-Croft C, Wang D, Sumpter LR, Zhou X, Zwischenberger JB.
Ann Thorac Surg. 2012 Apr;93(4):1331-9. doi: 10.1016/j.athoracsur.2011.06.107. Epub 2012 Jan 14. Review.
PMID: 22244649 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

18. Smoking-related interstitial fibrosis (SRIF), pathogenesis and treatment of usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP), and transbronchial biopsy in UIP.
Katzenstein AL.
Mod Pathol. 2012 Jan;25 Suppl 1:S68-78. doi: 10.1038/modpathol.2011.154. Review.
PMID: 22214972 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free Article
Related citations

19. Heme Oxygenase-1/CO as protective mediators in cigarette smoke- induced lung cell injury and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Dolinay T, Choi AM, Ryter SW.
Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2012 May;13(6):769-76. Review.
PMID: 22201606 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

20. Transfusion-related acute lung injury: incidence and risk factors.
Toy P, Gajic O, Bacchetti P, Looney MR, Gropper MA, Hubmayr R, Lowell CA, Norris PJ, Murphy EL, Weiskopf RB, Wilson G, Koenigsberg M, Lee D, Schuller R, Wu P, Grimes B, Gandhi MJ, Winters JL, Mair D, Hirschler N, Sanchez Rosen R, Matthay MA; TRALI Study Group.
Blood. 2012 Feb 16;119(7):1757-67. doi: 10.1182/blood-2011-08-370932. Epub 2011 Nov 23.
PMID: 22117051 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

21. Acrolein-a pulmonary hazard.
Bein K, Leikauf GD.
Mol Nutr Food Res. 2011 Sep;55(9):1342-60. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201100279. Review.
PMID: 21994168 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

22. Grape skin extract reduced pulmonary oxidative response in mice exposed to cigarette smoke.
Pires KM, Valença SS, Resende ÂC, Porto LC, Queiroz EF, Moreira DD, de Moura RS.
Med Sci Monit. 2011 Aug;17(8):BR187-195.
PMID: 21804454 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

23. Sixty-two severe and critical patients with 2009 influenza A (H1N1) in Shanghai, China.
Liu L, Zhang RF, Lu HZ, Lu SH, Huang Q, Xiong YY, Xi XH, Zhang ZY.
Chin Med J (Engl). 2011 Jun;124(11):1662-6.
PMID: 21740773 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free Article
Related citations

24. Oxidants and redox signaling in acute lung injury.
Sarma JV, Ward PA.
Compr Physiol. 2011 Jul;1(3):1365-81. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c100068. Review.
PMID: 23733646 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

25. Susceptibility to acute lung injury after severe blunt trauma and its dependence on previous tobacco smoke exposure: does dose really matter?
Kork F, Spies CD.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011 Jun 15;183(12):1580-1. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201103-0508ED. No abstract available.
PMID: 21693711 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

26. Clinical manifestations, therapy and outcome of pandemic influenza A (H1N1) 2009 in hospitalized patients.
Mikić D, Nozić D, Kojić M, Popović S, Hristović D, Dimitrijević RR, Curcić P, Milanović M, Glavatović R, Kupresanin VB, Veljović M, Djordjević D, Kapulica NK, Cekanac R, Stefanović D.
Vojnosanit Pregl. 2011 Mar;68(3):248-56.
PMID: 21524006 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

27. Active and passive cigarette smoking and acute lung injury after severe blunt trauma.
Calfee CS, Matthay MA, Eisner MD, Benowitz N, Call M, Pittet JF, Cohen MJ.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011 Jun 15;183(12):1660-5. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201011-1802OC. Epub 2011 Mar 18.
PMID: 21471091 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

28. Incidence and risk factors of recurrent acute lung injury.
Bice T, Li G, Malinchoc M, Lee AS, Gajic O.
Crit Care Med. 2011 May;39(5):1069-73. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31820edf91.
PMID: 21317648 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

29. Risk groups and maternal-neonatal complications of preeclampsia--current results from the national German Perinatal Quality Registry.
Schneider S, Freerksen N, Maul H, Roehrig S, Fischer B, Hoeft B.
J Perinat Med. 2011 May;39(3):257-65. doi: 10.1515/JPM.2011.010. Epub 2011 Feb 10.
PMID: 21309631 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

30. Factors associated with postoperative pulmonary morbidity after esophagectomy for cancer.
Zingg U, Smithers BM, Gotley DC, Smith G, Aly A, Clough A, Esterman AJ, Jamieson GG, Watson DI.
Ann Surg Oncol. 2011 May;18(5):1460-8. doi: 10.1245/s10434-010-1474-5. Epub 2010 Dec 24.
PMID: 21184193 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

31. Alveolar macrophage gene expression is altered in the setting of alcohol use disorders.
Burnham EL, Phang TL, House R, Vandivier RW, Moss M, Gaydos J.
Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2011 Feb;35(2):284-94. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01344.x. Epub 2010 Dec 1.
PMID: 21121937 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

32. Recombinant human activated protein C attenuates cardiovascular and microcirculatory dysfunction in acute lung injury and septic shock.
Maybauer MO, Maybauer DM, Fraser JF, Szabo C, Westphal M, Kiss L, Horvath EM, Nakano Y, Herndon DN, Traber LD, Traber DL.
Crit Care. 2010;14(6):R217. doi: 10.1186/cc9342. Epub 2010 Nov 26.
PMID: 21110850 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

33. [Risk factors of novel severe influenza A(H1N1) with concurrent adult respiratory distress syndrome].
Dai B, Kang J, Wang ZF, Kong DL, Tan W, Zhao HW.
Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi. 2010 Sep 14;90(34):2392-5. Chinese.
PMID: 21092507 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

34. Value of duplex scanning in differentiating embolic from thrombotic arterial occlusion in acute limb ischemia.
Elmahdy MF, Ghareeb Mahdy S, Baligh Ewiss E, Said K, Kassem HH, Ammar W.
Cardiovasc Revasc Med. 2010 Oct-Dec;11(4):223-6. doi: 10.1016/j.carrev.2009.09.001.
PMID: 20934653 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

35. Early identification of patients at risk of acute lung injury: evaluation of lung injury prediction score in a multicenter cohort study.
Gajic O, Dabbagh O, Park PK, Adesanya A, Chang SY, Hou P, Anderson H 3rd, Hoth JJ, Mikkelsen ME, Gentile NT, Gong MN, Talmor D, Bajwa E, Watkins TR, Festic E, Yilmaz M, Iscimen R, Kaufman DA, Esper AM, Sadikot R, Douglas I, Sevransky J, Malinchoc M; U.S. Critical Illness and Injury Trials Group: Lung Injury Prevention Study Investigators (USCIITG-LIPS).
Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011 Feb 15;183(4):462-70. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201004-0549OC. Epub 2010 Aug 27.
PMID: 20802164 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

36. Heme oxygenase-1 in lung disease.
Raval CM, Lee PJ.
Curr Drug Targets. 2010 Dec;11(12):1532-40. Review.
PMID: 20704548 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

37. Smoking in trauma patients: the effects on the incidence of sepsis, respiratory failure, organ failure, and mortality.
Ferro TN, Goslar PW, Romanovsky AA, Petersen SR.
J Trauma. 2010 Aug;69(2):308-12. doi: 10.1097/TA.0b013e3181e1761e.
PMID: 20699738 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

38. Endothelial dysfunction and claudin 5 regulation during acrolein-induced lung injury.
Jang AS, Concel VJ, Bein K, Brant KA, Liu S, Pope-Varsalona H, Dopico RA Jr, Di YP, Knoell DL, Barchowsky A, Leikauf GD.
Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2011 Apr;44(4):483-90. doi: 10.1165/rcmb.2009-0391OC. Epub 2010 Jun 4.
PMID: 20525806 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

39. Phenotypic and physiologic variability in nasal epithelium cultured from smokers and non-smokers exposed to secondhand tobacco smoke.
Carson JL, Lu TS, Brighton L, Hazucha M, Jaspers I, Zhou H.
In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim. 2010 Jul;46(7):606-12. doi: 10.1007/s11626-010-9310-6. Epub 2010 Apr 10.
PMID: 20383665 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

40. New-onset atrial fibrillation predicts long-term mortality after coronary artery bypass graft.
El-Chami MF, Kilgo P, Thourani V, Lattouf OM, Delurgio DB, Guyton RA, Leon AR, Puskas JD.
J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010 Mar 30;55(13):1370-6. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2009.10.058.
PMID: 20338499 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

41. Characteristics and outcome of patients hospitalised for lower extremity peripheral artery disease in France: the COPART Registry.
Cambou JP, Aboyans V, Constans J, Lacroix P, Dentans C, Bura A.
Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2010 May;39(5):577-85. doi: 10.1016/j.ejvs.2010.02.009. Epub 2010 Mar 19.
PMID: 20303804 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

42. Risk factors for depression and anxiety in survivors of acute respiratory distress syndrome.
Hopkins RO, Key CW, Suchyta MR, Weaver LK, Orme JF Jr.
Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2010 Mar-Apr;32(2):147-55. doi: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2009.11.003. Epub 2009 Dec 14.
PMID: 20302988 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

43. Effects of LTB4 receptor antagonism on pulmonary inflammation in rodents and non-human primates.
Hicks A, Goodnow R Jr, Cavallo G, Tannu SA, Ventre JD, Lavelle D, Lora JM, Satjawatcharaphong J, Brovarney M, Dabbagh K, Tare NS, Oh H, Lamb M, Sidduri A, Dominique R, Qiao Q, Lou JP, Gillespie P, Fotouhi N, Kowalczyk A, Kurylko G, Hamid R, Wright MB, Pamidimukkala A, Egan T, Gubler U, Hoffman AF, Wei X, Li YL, O'Neil J, Marcano R, Pozzani K, Molinaro T, Santiago J, Singer L, Hargaden M, Moore D, Catala AR, Chao LC, Benson J, March T, Venkat R, Mancebo H, Renzetti LM.
Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2010 Jun;92(1-4):33-43. doi: 10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2010.02.003. Epub 2010 Mar 7.
PMID: 20214997 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

44. [Intensive care patients with influenza A (H1N1) infection in Iceland 2009].
Sigurdsson GH, Möller AD, Kristinsson B, Gudlaugsson O, Kárason S, Sigurdsson SE, Kristjánsson M, Sigvaldason K.
Laeknabladid. 2010 Feb;96(2):83-90. Icelandic.
PMID: 20118502 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

45. Acute lung injury after thoracic surgery.
Eichenbaum KD, Neustein SM.
J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2010 Aug;24(4):681-90. doi: 10.1053/j.jvca.2009.10.032. Epub 2010 Jan 8. Review.
PMID: 20060320 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

46. Alcohol consumption and development of acute respiratory distress syndrome: a population-based study.
Thakur L, Kojicic M, Thakur SJ, Pieper MS, Kashyap R, Trillo-Alvarez CA, Javier F, Cartin-Ceba R, Gajic O.
Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2009 Sep;6(9):2426-35. doi: 10.3390/ijerph6092426. Epub 2009 Sep 10.
PMID: 19826554 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

47. Early extracorporeal life support as rescue therapy for severe acute respiratory distress syndrome after inhalation injury.
Nelson J, Cairns B, Charles A.
J Burn Care Res. 2009 Nov-Dec;30(6):1035-8. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0b013e3181bfb7fd.
PMID: 19826265 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

48. Airway management and smoke inhalation injury in the burn patient.
Cancio LC.
Clin Plast Surg. 2009 Oct;36(4):555-67. doi: 10.1016/j.cps.2009.05.013. Review.
PMID: 19793551 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

49. Update experience of surgery for acute limb ischaemia in a district general hospital-are we getting any better?
Morris-Stiff G, D'Souza J, Raman S, Paulvannan S, Lewis MH.
Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 2009 Nov;91(8):637-40. doi: 10.1308/003588409X12486167521271. Epub 2009 Sep 25.
PMID: 19785938 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

50. Fulminant, undetected Candida sepsis after an apparently survivable burn injury.
Struck MF, Stiller D, Corterier CC, Reichelt B, Steen M.
J Burn Care Res. 2009 Sep-Oct;30(5):894-7. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0b013e3181b48794.
PMID: 19692926 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

51. Nrf2 protects against airway disorders.
Cho HY, Kleeberger SR.
Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2010 Apr 1;244(1):43-56. doi: 10.1016/j.taap.2009.07.024. Epub 2009 Jul 29. Review.
PMID: 19646463 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

52. [Pathophysiology of acute lung injury in severe burn and smoke inhalation injury].
Maybauer MO, Rehberg S, Traber DL, Herndon DN, Maybauer DM.
Anaesthesist. 2009 Aug;58(8):805-12. doi: 10.1007/s00101-009-1560-x. Review. German.
PMID: 19517070 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

53. Acute respiratory distress syndrome after zinc chloride inhalation: survival after extracorporeal life support and corticosteroid treatment.
Chian CF, Wu CP, Chen CW, Su WL, Yeh CB, Perng WC.
Am J Crit Care. 2010 Jan;19(1):86-90. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2009908. Epub 2009 Mar 19.
PMID: 19304566 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free Article
Related citations

54. Prognostic value of electrocardiography and electroencephalography in patients with ischemic stroke.
Iranmanesh F.
Acta Neurol Taiwan. 2008 Dec;17(4):228-32.
PMID: 19280865 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free Article
Related citations

55. Update on anesthetic management for pneumonectomy.
Slinger P.
Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2009 Feb;22(1):31-7. doi: 10.1097/ACO.0b013e32831a4394. Review.
PMID: 19237974 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

56. Influence of nebulized unfractionated heparin and N-acetylcysteine in acute lung injury after smoke inhalation injury.
Miller AC, Rivero A, Ziad S, Smith DJ, Elamin EM.
J Burn Care Res. 2009 Mar-Apr;30(2):249-56. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0b013e318198a268.
PMID: 19165116 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

57. Revisional operations for marginal ulcer after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass.
Patel RA, Brolin RE, Gandhi A.
Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2009 May-Jun;5(3):317-22. doi: 10.1016/j.soard.2008.10.011. Epub 2008 Nov 6.
PMID: 19136312 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

58. Disruption of iron homeostasis and lung disease.
Ghio AJ.
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2009 Jul;1790(7):731-9. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2008.11.004. Epub 2008 Dec 3. Review.
PMID: 19100311 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

59. Oscillation after inhalation: high frequency oscillatory ventilation in burn patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome and co-existing smoke inhalation injury.
Cartotto R, Walia G, Ellis S, Fowler R.
J Burn Care Res. 2009 Jan-Feb;30(1):119-27. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0b013e3181920fe6.
PMID: 19060765 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

60. Intraoperative ventilator settings and acute lung injury after elective surgery: a nested case control study.
Fernández-Pérez ER, Sprung J, Afessa B, Warner DO, Vachon CM, Schroeder DR, Brown DR, Hubmayr RD, Gajic O.
Thorax. 2009 Feb;64(2):121-7. doi: 10.1136/thx.2008.102228. Epub 2008 Nov 6.
PMID: 18988659 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

61. Preoperative pulmonary evaluation (PPE) as a prognostic factor in patients undergoing upper abdominal surgery.
Grigorakos L, Sotiriou E, Koulendi D, Michail A, Alevizou S, Evagelopoulou P, Karatzas S, Ligidakis N.
Hepatogastroenterology. 2008 Jul-Aug;55(85):1229-32.
PMID: 18795662 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

62. Exogenous surfactant in paediatric Acute Lung Injury and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome.
Playfor SD, Nootigattu VK.
Curr Drug Saf. 2006 May;1(2):159-68. Review.
PMID: 18690927 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

63. [Cardiovascular surgery for patients with chronic respiratory failure and respiratory dysfunction].
Daitoku K, Suzuki Y, Fukuda I.
Kyobu Geka. 2008 Jul;61(8 Suppl):624-9. Review. Japanese.
PMID: 20715399 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

64. The effects of alcohol abuse on pulmonary alveolar-capillary barrier function in humans.
Burnham EL, Halkar R, Burks M, Moss M.
Alcohol Alcohol. 2009 Jan-Feb;44(1):8-12. doi: 10.1093/alcalc/agn051. Epub 2008 Jun 21.
PMID: 18567916 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

65. Atmospheric pollutants and mortalities in English local authority areas.
Knox EG.
J Epidemiol Community Health. 2008 May;62(5):442-7. doi: 10.1136/jech.2007.065862.
PMID: 18413458 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

66. Predicting the need for intensive care following lung resection.
Jordan S, Evans TW.
Thorac Surg Clin. 2008 Feb;18(1):61-9. doi: 10.1016/j.thorsurg.2007.11.003. Review.
PMID: 18402202 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

67. Tracheobronchial markers of lung injury in smoke inhalation victims.
Kurzius-Spencer M, Foster K, Littau S, Richey KJ, Clark BM, Sherrill D, Goodman RB, Boitano S, Burgess JL.
J Burn Care Res. 2008 Mar-Apr;29(2):311-8. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0b013e3181667991.
PMID: 18354287 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

68. Mate tea reduced acute lung inflammation in mice exposed to cigarette smoke.
Lanzetti M, Bezerra FS, Romana-Souza B, Brando-Lima AC, Koatz VL, Porto LC, Valenca SS.
Nutrition. 2008 Apr;24(4):375-81. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2008.01.002. Epub 2008 Feb 20.
PMID: 18281194 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

69. Systemic inflammation caused by white smoke inhalation in a combat exercise.
Huang KL, Chen CW, Chu SJ, Perng WC, Wu CP.
Chest. 2008 Mar;133(3):722-8. doi: 10.1378/chest.07-2076. Epub 2008 Jan 15.
PMID: 18198249 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

70. Presence of cytokeratins in exhaled breath condensate of mechanical ventilated patients.
Gessner C, Dihazi H, Brettschneider S, Hammerschmidt S, Kuhn H, Eschrich K, Keller T, Engelmann L, Sack U, Wirtz H.
Respir Med. 2008 Feb;102(2):299-306. Epub 2007 Nov 8.
PMID: 17996434 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

71. Combined anticoagulants ameliorate acute lung injury in sheep after burn and smoke inhalation.
Enkhbaatar P, Esechie A, Wang J, Cox RA, Nakano Y, Hamahata A, Lange M, Traber LD, Prough DS, Herndon DN, Traber DL.
Clin Sci (Lond). 2008 Feb;114(4):321-9.
PMID: 17927568 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free Article
Related citations

72. Diagnostic value of biohumoral markers of necrosis and inflammation in patients with right ventricular myocardial infarction.
Orozović V, Rafajlovski S, Gligić B, Miailović Z, Obradović S, Ratković N, Djenić N, Baskot B.
Prilozi. 2007 Jul;28(1):23-38.
PMID: 17921916 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

73. Protective functions of heme oxygenase-1 and carbon monoxide in the respiratory system.
Ryter SW, Kim HP, Nakahira K, Zuckerbraun BS, Morse D, Choi AM.
Antioxid Redox Signal. 2007 Dec;9(12):2157-73. Review.
PMID: 17845132 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

74. Protection from acute and chronic lung diseases by curcumin.
Venkatesan N, Punithavathi D, Babu M.
Adv Exp Med Biol. 2007;595:379-405. Review.
PMID: 17569221 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

75. Cigarette smoke condensate inhibits ENaC alpha-subunit expression in lung epithelial cells.
Xu H, Ferro TJ, Chu S.
Eur Respir J. 2007 Oct;30(4):633-42. Epub 2007 May 30.
PMID: 17537777 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free Article
Related citations

76. Chronic alcoholism alters systemic and pulmonary glutathione redox status.
Yeh MY, Burnham EL, Moss M, Brown LA.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007 Aug 1;176(3):270-6. Epub 2007 May 16.
PMID: 17507544 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

77. Increased fibronectin expression in lung in the setting of chronic alcohol abuse.
Burnham EL, Moss M, Ritzenthaler JD, Roman J.
Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2007 Apr;31(4):675-83.
PMID: 17374047 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

78. Transfusion-related acute lung injury in patients with burns.
Higgins S, Fowler R, Callum J, Cartotto R.
J Burn Care Res. 2007 Jan-Feb;28(1):56-64.
PMID: 17211201 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

79. Artificial lung: progress and prototypes.
Zwischenberger BA, Clemson LA, Zwischenberger JB.
Expert Rev Med Devices. 2006 Jul;3(4):485-97. Review.
PMID: 16866645 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

80. The role of the bronchial circulation in the acute lung injury resulting from burn and smoke inhalation.
Traber DL, Hawkins HK, Enkhbaatar P, Cox RA, Schmalstieg FC, Zwischenberger JB, Traber LD.
Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 2007;20(2):163-6. Epub 2006 Jun 22. Review.
PMID: 16798035 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

81. [Risk factors affecting the survival rate in serious multiple trauma patients associated with acute lung injure/acute respiratory distress syndrome].
Wu JS, Yi JH, Sheng L, Shi XY, Yang JX, Huang ZJ, Gan JX.
Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi. 2006 Mar 21;86(11):753-8. Chinese.
PMID: 16681949 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

82. Nrf2 defends the lung from oxidative stress.
Cho HY, Reddy SP, Kleeberger SR.
Antioxid Redox Signal. 2006 Jan-Feb;8(1-2):76-87. Review.
PMID: 16487040 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

83. Carbon monoxide poisoning: a five year review at Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore.
Handa PK, Tai DY.
Ann Acad Med Singapore. 2005 Nov;34(10):611-4.
PMID: 16382246 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free Article
Related citations

84. Lack of evidence for an association between neurofibromatosis and pulmonary fibrosis.
Ryu JH, Parambil JG, McGrann PS, Aughenbaugh GL.
Chest. 2005 Oct;128(4):2381-6.
PMID: 16236898 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

85. [Respiratory dysfunction in burned patients].
Bargues L, Vaylet F, Le Bever H, L'Her P, Carsin H.
Rev Mal Respir. 2005 Jun;22(3):449-60. Review. French.
PMID: 16227930 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

86. [Legionella pneumonia--a case report].
Marques AS, Estrada MH.
Rev Port Pneumol. 2005 Mar-Apr;11(2):165-73. Review. Portuguese.
PMID: 15947860 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

87. Use of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation in burn patients.
Cartotto R, Ellis S, Smith T.
Crit Care Med. 2005 Mar;33(3 Suppl):S175-81. Review.
PMID: 15753725 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

88. Computed tomography--a possible aid in the diagnosis of smoke inhalation injury?
Reske A, Bak Z, Samuelsson A, Morales O, Seiwerts M, Sjöberg F.
Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2005 Feb;49(2):257-60.
PMID: 15715631 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

89. Trans-metatarsal amputation as a complication of child sexual abuse.
Ozkara E, Karatosun V, Gunal I, Oral R.
J Clin Forensic Med. 2004 Jun;11(3):129-32.
PMID: 15260997 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

90. [Diffuse idiopathic interstitial pneumonias. International multidisciplinary consensus classification by the American Thoracic Society and the European Respiratory Society, principal clinico-pathological entities, and diagnosis].
Cottin V, Capron F, Grenier P, Cordier JF.
Rev Mal Respir. 2004 Apr;21(2 Pt 1):299-318. Review. French.
PMID: 15211238 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

91. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome in housewives due to a bleach-hydrochloric acid mixture.
Gorguner M, Aslan S, Inandi T, Cakir Z.
Inhal Toxicol. 2004 Feb;16(2):87-91.
PMID: 15204781 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

92. Substance P and neutral endopeptidase in development of acute respiratory distress syndrome following fire smoke inhalation.
Wong SS, Sun NN, Lantz RC, Witten ML.
Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2004 Oct;287(4):L859-66. Epub 2004 Jun 11.
PMID: 15194566 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free Article
Related citations

93. Pathophysiology of acute lung injury in combined burn and smoke inhalation injury.
Enkhbaatar P, Traber DL.
Clin Sci (Lond). 2004 Aug;107(2):137-43. Review.
PMID: 15151496 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free Article
Related citations

94. Ultrasonography of the uterus after normal vaginal delivery.
Al-Bdour AN, Akasheh HF, Al-Husban NA.
Saudi Med J. 2004 Jan;25(1):41-4. Erratum in: Saudi Med J. 2008 Aug;29(8):1215.
PMID: 14758377 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

95. [Pathogenicity and treatment of acute respiratory distress syndrome after thoracotomy].
Chen XF, Ding JA, Gao W, Jiang L, Sun GY, Hu ZH.
Zhonghua Wai Ke Za Zhi. 2003 Dec;41(12):906-8. Chinese.
PMID: 14728830 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

96. The role of nuclear factor kappa B in the pathogenesis of pulmonary diseases: implications for therapy.
Wright JG, Christman JW.
Am J Respir Med. 2003;2(3):211-9. Review.
PMID: 14720003 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

97. Postoperative pulmonary complications after preoperative chemoradiation for esophageal carcinoma: correlation with pulmonary dose-volume histogram parameters.
Lee HK, Vaporciyan AA, Cox JD, Tucker SL, Putnam JB Jr, Ajani JA, Liao Z, Swisher SG, Roth JA, Smythe WR, Walsh GL, Mohan R, Liu HH, Mooring D, Komaki R.
Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2003 Dec 1;57(5):1317-22.
PMID: 14630268 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

98. [Severe chickenpox pneumonia].
Martínez Segura JM, Gutiérrez Oliver A, Maraví Poma E, Jiménez Urra I.
Rev Clin Esp. 2003 Dec;203(12):591-4. Spanish.
PMID: 14622509 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

99. Features of severe pneumonia in patients with undiagnosed pulmonary tuberculosis in an intensive care unit.
Hui C, Wu CL, Chan MC, Kuo IT, Chiang CD.
J Formos Med Assoc. 2003 Aug;102(8):563-9.
PMID: 14569322 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

100. Pulmonary fibrosis and lung cancer: risk and benefit analysis of pulmonary resection.
Kumar P, Goldstraw P, Yamada K, Nicholson AG, Wells AU, Hansell DM, Dubois RM, Ladas G.
J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2003 Jun;125(6):1321-7.
PMID: 12830051 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

101. Cepharanthin, an alkaloid from Stephania cepharantha, inhibits increased pulmonary vascular permeability in an ovine model of sepsis.
Murakami K, Cox RA, Hawkins HK, Schmalstieg FC, McGuire RW, Jodoin JM, Traber LD, Traber DL.
Shock. 2003 Jul;20(1):46-51.
PMID: 12813368 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

102. [Acute lung injury caused by inhalation of waterproofing spray].
Tagawa A, Ikehara K, Tsuburai T, Nishiyama H, Miyazawa N, Hashiba T, Suzuki M, Suzuki S, Ishigatsubo Y.
Nihon Kokyuki Gakkai Zasshi. 2003 Feb;41(2):123-6. Japanese.
PMID: 12722332 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

103. Chronic alcohol abuse is associated with an increased incidence of acute respiratory distress syndrome and severity of multiple organ dysfunction in patients with septic shock.
Moss M, Parsons PE, Steinberg KP, Hudson LD, Guidot DM, Burnham EL, Eaton S, Cotsonis GA.
Crit Care Med. 2003 Mar;31(3):869-77.
PMID: 12626999 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

104. High-frequency percussive ventilation as a salvage modality in adult respiratory distress syndrome: a preliminary study.
Paulsen SM, Killyon GW, Barillo DJ.
Am Surg. 2002 Oct;68(10):852-6; discussion 856.
PMID: 12412709 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

105. Clinical approach to chronic beryllium disease and other nonpneumoconiotic interstitial lung diseases.
Maier LA.
J Thorac Imaging. 2002 Oct;17(4):273-84. Review.
PMID: 12362066 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

106. Hypercapnic respiratory failure and partial upper airway obstruction during high frequency oscillatory ventilation in an adult burn patient.
Cooper AB, Islur A, Gomez M, Goldenson GL, Cartotto RC.
Can J Anaesth. 2002 Aug-Sep;49(7):724-8. English, French.
PMID: 12193493 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

107. Incidence of major pulmonary morbidity after pneumonectomy: association with timing of smoking cessation.
Vaporciyan AA, Merriman KW, Ece F, Roth JA, Smythe WR, Swisher SG, Walsh GL, Nesbitt JC, Putnam JB Jr.
Ann Thorac Surg. 2002 Feb;73(2):420-5; discussion 425-6.
PMID: 11845853 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

108. Acute respiratory distress syndrome in a woman with heroin and methamphetamine misuse.
Yeh PS, Yuan A, Yu CJ, Kuo SH, Luh KT, Yang PC.
J Formos Med Assoc. 2001 Aug;100(8):553-6.
PMID: 11678007 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

109. Peri-operative risk factors for acute lung injury after elective oesophagectomy.
Tandon S, Batchelor A, Bullock R, Gascoigne A, Griffin M, Hayes N, Hing J, Shaw I, Warnell I, Baudouin SV.
Br J Anaesth. 2001 May;86(5):633-8.
PMID: 11575337 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free Article
Related citations

110. Clinical importance of thrombomodulin serum levels.
Califano F, Giovanniello T, Pantone P, Campana E, Parlapiano C, Alegiani F, Vincentelli GM, Turchetti P.
Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2000 May-Jun;4(3):59-66. Review.
PMID: 11558626 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

111. Nosocomial pneumonia in medical intensive care unit.
Trivedi TH, Shejale SB, Yeolekar ME.
J Assoc Physicians India. 2000 Nov;48(11):1070-3.
PMID: 11310383 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

112. Risk factors for ARDS in the United States: analysis of the 1993 National Mortality Followback Study.
TenHoor T, Mannino DM, Moss M.
Chest. 2001 Apr;119(4):1179-84.
PMID: 11296187 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

113. Levels of IL-8 and myeloperoxidase in the lungs of pneumonia patients.
Abul H, Abul A, Khan I, Mathew TC, Ayed A, Al-Athary E.
Mol Cell Biochem. 2001 Jan;217(1-2):107-12.
PMID: 11269653 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

114. Airway effects of marijuana, cocaine, and other inhaled illicit agents.
Tashkin DP.
Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2001 Mar;7(2):43-61. Review.
PMID: 11224724 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

115. Effect of surfactant protein A (SP-A) on the production of cytokines by human pulmonary macrophages.
Arias-Diaz J, Garcia-Verdugo I, Casals C, Sanchez-Rico N, Vara E, Balibrea JL.
Shock. 2000 Sep;14(3):300-6.
PMID: 11028547 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

116. Smoking-related interstitial lung diseases.
Nagai S, Hoshino Y, Hayashi M, Ito I.
Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2000 Sep;6(5):415-9. Review.
PMID: 10958232 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

117. Pulmonary involvement in leptospirosis.
Martínez García MA, de Diego Damiá A, Menéndez Villanueva R, López Hontagas JL.
Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2000 Jun;19(6):471-4.
PMID: 10947225 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

118. Increased exhalation of hydrogen peroxide in healthy subjects following cigarette consumption.
Guatura SB, Martinez JA, Santos Bueno PC, Santos ML.
Sao Paulo Med J. 2000 Jul 6;118(4):93-8.
PMID: 10887384 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free Article
Related citations

119. Extracorporeal support in an adult with severe carbon monoxide poisoning and shock following smoke inhalation: a case report.
McCunn M, Reynolds HN, Cottingham CA, Scalea TM, Habashi NM.
Perfusion. 2000 Mar;15(2):169-73. Review.
PMID: 10789573 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

120. Zinc chloride smoke inhalation: a rare cause of severe acute respiratory distress syndrome.
Pettilä V, Takkunen O, Tukiainen P.
Intensive Care Med. 2000 Feb;26(2):215-7.
PMID: 10784312 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

121. Pulmonary damage after modest exposure to zinc chloride smoke.
Zerahn B, Kofoed-Enevoldsen A, Jensen BV, Mølvig J, Ebbehøj N, Johansen JS, Kanstrup IL.
Respir Med. 1999 Dec;93(12):885-90.
PMID: 10653050 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

122. Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and risk of ARDS: a 15-year cohort study in a managed care setting.
Iribarren C, Jacobs DR Jr, Sidney S, Gross MD, Eisner MD.
Chest. 2000 Jan;117(1):163-8.
PMID: 10631215 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

123. Acute lung injury, acute respiratory distress syndrome and inhalation injury: an overview.
Kimmel EC, Still KR.
Drug Chem Toxicol. 1999 Feb;22(1):91-128. Review.
PMID: 10189573 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

124. Intraoperative respiratory failure in a patient after treatment with bleomycin: previous and current intraoperative exposure to 50% oxygen.
Luis M, Ayuso A, Martinez G, Souto M, Ortells J.
Eur J Anaesthesiol. 1999 Jan;16(1):66-8.
PMID: 10084104 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

125. [Role of diagnostic imaging in the assessment of lung complications of burns].
Sergiacomi GL, Mazzetti di Pietralata G, Moscone A, Ciorra DM, Motta MR, Palmisano P, Simonetti G.
Radiol Med. 1998 Nov;96(5):454-61. Italian.
PMID: 10051868 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

126. Adult respiratory distress syndrome following cardiopulmonary bypass: incidence, prophylaxis and management.
Kaul TK, Fields BL, Riggins LS, Wyatt DA, Jones CR, Nagle D.
J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino). 1998 Dec;39(6):777-81.
PMID: 9972899 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

127. Acute lung injury after inhalation of water-proofing spray while smoking a cigarette.
Jinn Y, Akizuki N, Ohkouchi M, Inase N, Ichioka M, Marumo F.
Respiration. 1998;65(6):486-8.
PMID: 9817966 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

128. Characterization of N-acetylcysteine and ambroxol in anti-oxidant therapy.
Gillissen A, Nowak D.
Respir Med. 1998 Apr;92(4):609-23. Review.
PMID: 9659525 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

129. [Clinical and pathophysiologic problems associated with smoke inhalation injury].
Shimazu T, Ogura H, Sugimoto H.
Nihon Geka Gakkai Zasshi. 1998 Jan;99(1):46-51. Japanese.
PMID: 9547747 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

130. Risk factors for pulmonary complications in the postoperative head and neck surgery patient.
McCulloch TM, Jensen NF, Girod DA, Tsue TT, Weymuller EA Jr.
Head Neck. 1997 Aug;19(5):372-7.
PMID: 9243263 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

131. [The early detection of young people with alcohol-related disorders in primary care].
González García Y, López Sampedro P, Saavedra Rielo MC, González Arce D, García Lavandera LJ, Cuesta Castro B.
Aten Primaria. 1997 Jul-Aug;20(3):133-6. Spanish.
PMID: 9303672 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

132. Increased mortality of older patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome.
Suchyta MR, Clemmer TP, Elliott CG, Orme JF Jr, Morris AH, Jacobson J, Menlove R.
Chest. 1997 May;111(5):1334-9.
PMID: 9149591 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

133. Does detoxification reverse the acute lung injury of crack smokers?
Susskind H, Weber DA, Atkins HL, Franceschi D, Volkow ND.
Nucl Med Commun. 1996 Nov;17(11):963-70.
PMID: 8971868 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

134. Nuclear factor-kappa B is activated in alveolar macrophages from patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome.
Schwartz MD, Moore EE, Moore FA, Shenkar R, Moine P, Haenel JB, Abraham E.
Crit Care Med. 1996 Aug;24(8):1285-92.
PMID: 8706481 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

135. [ARDS caused by military zinc fumes exposure].
Freitag A, Caduff B.
Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 1996 Jun 8;126(23):1006-10. German.
PMID: 8701238 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

136. Bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia. A community hospital experience.
Lippmann ML, Goldberg SK, Walkenstein MD, Herring W, Gordon M.
Chest. 1995 Dec;108(6):1608-13.
PMID: 7497769 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

137. Adult respiratory distress syndrome and artificial surfactant replacement in the pediatric patient.
Perez-Benavides F, Riff E, Franks C.
Pediatr Emerg Care. 1995 Jun;11(3):153-5.
PMID: 7651868 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

138. Felix Fleischner Lecture. The traffic of polymorphonuclear leukocytes through pulmonary microvessels in health and disease.
Hogg JC.
AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1994 Oct;163(4):769-75. Review.
PMID: 8092009 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

139. Effect of pentoxifylline and somatostatin on tumour necrosis factor production by human pulmonary macrophages.
Balibrea JL, Arias-Díaz J, García C, Vara E.
Circ Shock. 1994 Jun;43(2):51-6.
PMID: 7834820 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

140. Smoke inhalation injury.
Ruddy RM.
Pediatr Clin North Am. 1994 Apr;41(2):317-36. Review.
PMID: 8139878 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

141. Predicting the presence of pulmonary function impairment in adult respiratory distress syndrome survivors.
Suchyta MR, Elliott CG, Jensen RL, Crapo RO.
Respiration. 1993;60(2):103-8.
PMID: 8341851 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

142. Adverse effects of neutrophils on the lung.
Gadek JE.
Am J Med. 1992 Jun 22;92(6A):27S-31S. Review.
PMID: 1320328 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

143. Role of surfactant in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: therapeutic implications.
Lusuardi M, Capelli A, Carli S, Tacconi MT, Salmona M, Donner CF.
Respiration. 1992;59 Suppl 1:28-32. Review.
PMID: 1579729 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

144. Respiratory effects of cocaine freebasing among habitual cocaine users.
Tashkin DP, Gorelick D, Khalsa ME, Simmons M, Chang P.
J Addict Dis. 1992;11(4):59-70.
PMID: 1486094 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

145. Pulmonary complications of smoked substance abuse.
Tashkin DP.
West J Med. 1990 May;152(5):525-30. Review.
PMID: 2190420 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

146. Changes in alveolar macrophage, monocyte, and neutrophil cell profiles after smoke inhalation injury.
Riyami BM, Tree R, Kinsella J, Clark CJ, Reid WH, Campbell D, Gemmell CG.
J Clin Pathol. 1990 Jan;43(1):43-5.
PMID: 2312750 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

147. Deadspace during anaesthesia.
Fletcher R.
Acta Anaesthesiol Scand Suppl. 1990;94:46-50. Review.
PMID: 2291389 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

148. Pulmonary clearance of 99mTc-DTPA in the diagnosis and evolution of increased permeability pulmonary oedema.
Barrowcliffe MP, Jones JG.
Anaesth Intensive Care. 1989 Nov;17(4):422-32.
PMID: 2688476 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

149. Comparison of vitamin E levels in plasma, bronchoalveolar lavage, and lung tissues of adult pulmonary patients.
Tangney CC, Stibolt TB Jr, Zheutlin L, Jacobs E, Hanley M.
J Am Coll Nutr. 1989 Jun;8(3):203-14.
PMID: 2760352 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

150. Impairment after adult respiratory distress syndrome. An evaluation based on American Thoracic Society recommendations.
Ghio AJ, Elliott CG, Crapo RO, Berlin SL, Jensen RL.
Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989 May;139(5):1158-62. Erratum in: Am Rev Respir Dis 1989 Sep;140(3):862.
PMID: 2712443 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

151. Role of pulmonary alveolar macrophage activation in acute lung injury after burns and smoke inhalation.
Clark CJ, Pollock AJ, Reid WH, Campbell D, Gemmell C.
Lancet. 1988 Oct 15;2(8616):872-4.
PMID: 2902318 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

152. Pulmonary vascular permeability during the adult respiratory distress syndrome: a positron emission tomographic study.
Calandrino FS Jr, Anderson DJ, Mintun MA, Schuster DP.
Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988 Aug;138(2):421-8.
PMID: 3264126 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

153. Lung clearance of 99mTc-DTPA in patients with acute lung injury and pulmonary edema.
Coates G, O'Brodovich H, Dolovich M.
J Thorac Imaging. 1988 Jul;3(3):21-7. Review.
PMID: 3292780 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

154. ARDS after accidental inhalation of zinc chloride smoke.
Hjortsø E, Qvist J, Bud MI, Thomsen JL, Andersen JB, Wiberg-Jørgensen F, Jensen NK, Jones R, Reid LM, Zapol WM.
Intensive Care Med. 1988;14(1):17-24. Review.
PMID: 3278025 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

155. New developments in the pathogenesis of smoke inhalation-induced pulmonary edema.
Witten ML, Quan SF, Sobonya RE, Lemen RJ.
West J Med. 1988 Jan;148(1):33-6. Review.
PMID: 3277334 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE] Free PMC Article
Related citations

156. [Esophagogastroplasty in the treatment of squamous carcinoma of the esophagus (our experience)].
Abrescia F, Breda B, Montresor E, Iacono C, Bertrand C, Ferrari M, Barozzi E, Puchetti V.
Chir Ital. 1987 Feb;39(1):17-23. Italian.
PMID: 3607976 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

157. Measurement of pulmonary epithelial permeability with 99mTc-DTPA aerosol.
Coates G, O'Brodovich H.
Semin Nucl Med. 1986 Oct;16(4):275-84. Review.
PMID: 3541208 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

158. Comparison of lung vascular and epithelial permeability indices in the adult respiratory distress syndrome.
Braude S, Nolop KB, Hughes JM, Barnes PJ, Royston D.
Am Rev Respir Dis. 1986 Jun;133(6):1002-5.
PMID: 3717755 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

159. Adult respiratory distress syndrome induced by salicylate toxicity.
Niehoff JM, Baltatzis PA.
Postgrad Med. 1985 Jul;78(1):117-9, 123.
PMID: 4011513 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

160. [Evaluation of the risk of internal contamination of persons working in isotope laboratories].
Adamiak-Ziemba J, Doniec J, Kocznow W, Hawryński M.
Med Pr. 1985;36(5):325-30. Polish.
PMID: 3831701 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

161. Pulmonary complications in burn patients.
Teixidor HS, Novick G, Rubin E.
J Can Assoc Radiol. 1983 Dec;34(4):264-70.
PMID: 6668283 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

162. Adult respiratory distress syndrome in the course of acute myocardial infarction.
Keren A, Klein J, Stern S.
Chest. 1980 Feb;77(2):161-4.
PMID: 7353409 [PubMed-indexed for MEDLINE]
Related citations

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dr. Kun Chen for his help in conducting the study.

Footnote

Conflicts of Interest: The author has no conflicts of interest to declare.

References

1. Frutos-Vivar F, Nin N, Esteban A. Epidemiology of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Curr Opin Crit Care 2004;10:1-6. [Crossref] [PubMed]
2. Hudson LD, Steinberg KP. Epidemiology of acute lung injury and ARDS. Chest 1999;116:74S-82S. [Crossref] [PubMed]
3. Avecillas JF, Freire AX, Arroliga AC. Clinical epidemiology of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: incidence, diagnosis, and outcomes. Clin Chest Med 2006;27:549-57. abstract vii. [Crossref] [PubMed]
4. Brun-Buisson C, Minelli C, Bertolini G, et al. Epidemiology and outcome of acute lung injury in European intensive care units. Results from the ALIVE study. Intensive Care Med 2004;30:51-61. [Crossref] [PubMed]
5. Frutos-Vivar F, Nin N, Esteban A. Epidemiology of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Curr Opin Crit Care 2004;10:1-6. [Crossref] [PubMed]
6. Irish Critical Care Trials Group. Acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome in Ireland: a prospective audit of epidemiology and management. Crit Care 2008;12:R30. [Crossref] [PubMed]
7. Zhang Z, Hu X, Zhang X, et al. Lung protective ventilation in patients undergoing major surgery: a systematic review protocol. BMJ Open 2014;4:e004542. [Crossref] [PubMed]
8. Hu SL, He HL, Pan C, et al. The effect of prone positioning on mortality in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Crit Care 2014;18:R109. [Crossref] [PubMed]
9. Rennard SI, Daughton DM. Smoking cessation. Clin Chest Med 2014;35:165-76. [Crossref] [PubMed]
10. Kaul TK, Fields BL, Riggins LS, et al. Adult respiratory distress syndrome following cardiopulmonary bypass: incidence, prophylaxis and management. J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino) 1998;39:777-81. [PubMed]
11. Iribarren C, Jacobs DR Jr, Sidney S, et al. Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and risk of ARDS: a 15-year cohort study in a managed care setting. Chest 2000;117:163-8. [Crossref] [PubMed]
12. Tandon S, Batchelor A, Bullock R, et al. Peri-operative risk factors for acute lung injury after elective oesophagectomy. Br J Anaesth 2001;86:633-8. [Crossref] [PubMed]
13. TenHoor T, Mannino DM, Moss M. Risk factors for ARDS in the United States: analysis of the 1993 National Mortality Followback Study. Chest 2001;119:1179-84. [Crossref] [PubMed]
14. Stang A. Critical evaluation of the Newcastle-Ottawa scale for the assessment of the quality of nonrandomized studies in meta-analyses. Eur J Epidemiol 2010;25:603-5. [Crossref] [PubMed]
15. DerSimonian R, Kacker R. Random-effects model for meta-analysis of clinical trials: an update. Contemp Clin Trials 2007;28:105-14. [Crossref] [PubMed]
16. Zhang J, Yu KF. What's the relative risk? A method of correcting the odds ratio in cohort studies of common outcomes. JAMA 1998;280:1690-1. [Crossref] [PubMed]
17. Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, et al. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ 1997;315:629-34. [Crossref] [PubMed]
18. Chen XF, Ding JA, Gao W, et al. Pathogenicity and treatment of acute respiratory distress syndrome after thoracotomy. Zhonghua Wai Ke Za Zhi 2003;41:906-8. [PubMed]
19. Moss M, Parsons PE, Steinberg KP, et al. Chronic alcohol abuse is associated with an increased incidence of acute respiratory distress syndrome and severity of multiple organ dysfunction in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med 2003;31:869-77. [Crossref] [PubMed]
20. Grigorakos L, Sotiriou E, Koulendi D, et al. Preoperative pulmonary evaluation (PPE) as a prognostic factor in patients undergoing upper abdominal surgery. Hepatogastroenterology 2008;55:1229-32. [PubMed]
21. Thakur L, Kojicic M, Thakur SJ, et al. Alcohol consumption and development of acute respiratory distress syndrome: a population-based study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2009;6:2426-35. [Crossref] [PubMed]
22. Dai B, Kang J, Wang ZF, et al. Risk factors of novel severe influenza A(H1N1) with concurrent adult respiratory distress syndrome. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 2010;90:2392-5. [PubMed]
23. Ferro TN, Goslar PW, Romanovsky AA, et al. Smoking in trauma patients: the effects on the incidence of sepsis, respiratory failure, organ failure, and mortality. J Trauma 2010;69:308-12. [Crossref] [PubMed]
24. Sigurdsson GH, Möller AD, Kristinsson B, et al. Intensive care patients with influenza A (H1N1) infection in Iceland 2009. Laeknabladid 2010;96:83-90. [PubMed]
25. Zingg U, Smithers BM, Gotley DC, et al. Factors associated with postoperative pulmonary morbidity after esophagectomy for cancer. Ann Surg Oncol 2011;18:1460-8. [Crossref] [PubMed]
26. Bice T, Li G, Malinchoc M, et al. Incidence and risk factors of recurrent acute lung injury. Crit Care Med 2011;39:1069-73. [Crossref] [PubMed]
27. Calfee CS, Matthay MA, Eisner MD, et al. Active and passive cigarette smoking and acute lung injury after severe blunt trauma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;183:1660-5. [Crossref] [PubMed]
28. Gajic O, Dabbagh O, Park PK, et al. Critical Illness and Injury Trials Group. Lung Injury Prevention Study Investigators (USCIITG-LIPS). Early identification of patients at risk of acute lung injury: evaluation of lung injury prediction score in a multicenter cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;183:462-70. [Crossref] [PubMed]
29. Paul DJ, Jamieson GG, Watson DI, et al. Perioperative risk analysis for acute respiratory distress syndrome after elective oesophagectomy. ANZ J Surg 2011;81:700-6. [Crossref] [PubMed]
30. Toy P, Gajic O, Bacchetti P, et al. Transfusion-related acute lung injury: incidence and risk factors. Blood 2012;119:1757-67. [Crossref] [PubMed]
31. Jones JG, Minty BD, Royston D, et al. Carboxyhaemoglobin and pulmonary epithelial permeability in man. Thorax 1983;38:129-33. [Crossref] [PubMed]
32. Cantin AM, Hanrahan JW, Bilodeau G, et al. Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator function is suppressed in cigarette smokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;173:1139-44. [Crossref] [PubMed]
33. Rab A, Rowe SM, Raju SV, et al. Cigarette smoke and CFTR: implications in the pathogenesis of COPD. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2013;305:L530-41. [Crossref] [PubMed]
34. Jones JG, Minty BD, Lawler P, et al. Increased alveolar epithelial permeability in cigarette smokers. Lancet 1980;1:66-8. [Crossref] [PubMed]
35. Li XY, Rahman I, Donaldson K, et al. Mechanisms of cigarette smoke induced increased airspace permeability. Thorax 1996;51:465-71. [Crossref] [PubMed]
36. Xu H, Ferro TJ, Chu S. Cigarette smoke condensate inhibits ENaC alpha-subunit expression in lung epithelial cells. Eur Respir J 2007;30:633-42. [Crossref] [PubMed]
37. Zhang Z, Xu X, Ni H. Small studies may overestimate the effect sizes in critical care meta-analyses: a meta-epidemiological study. Crit Care 2013;17:R2. [Crossref] [PubMed]